The 19th century was a period of important developments in Tamil culture. Later outstanding religious poets included Arunakirinatar (15th century), Sivaprahasar (17th century), and Tayumanavar (18th century).
Similar works were the poetry of Sambandar (seventh century) and of Appar and Cuntarar (eighth century), the poetry collection Sacred Words by Manikkavacakar (ninth century), and Periyapuranam by Cekkilar (12th century). Works of bhakti literature from this period included the anthology Four Thousand Sacred Hymns, revered today by the Vishnuites as much as the Vedas, and Twelve Sacred Collections, most of whose material was compiled by Nambiyandar Nambi approximately in the 11th century.
The development of Shivaism and Vishnuism within Hinduism gave rise to an extensive bhakti literature beginning in the seventh and eighth centuries. An artificial, bombastic style of prose and poetry that combined Tamil and Sanskrit became prevalent. Ottakkuttan (12th century) and Puhajendi (13th and 14th centuries) developed the genre of court poetry. The narrative poem Ramayana by Kampan (10th and 11th centuries), as well as other adapted works depicting Tamil mythological figures, were no longer mere imitations but depicted traditional Tamil life. Buddhism and Jainism influenced Tamil narrative poems of the second half of the first millennium, including Cilappatikaram (The Jeweled Anklet), Manimekalai, Civakacintamani, Valayapadi, and Kundalakesi the last two works survived only in fragments. The Tirukkural and Nalatiyar, collections of aphoristic poetry, date from the middle of the first millennium A.D. The rules for ancient Tamil poetry, which was similar to folklore, were fixed in the Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil grammatical treatise written in verse. The earliest works of Tamil literature included love lyrics and the poetry collections Eight Anthologies and Ten Songs, which described the rural and urban life of the ancient Tamils, the wanderings of poets, and the valor of kings. The literature of the Tamils, dating from the beginning of the Common Era.
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